Ukususwa komhlwa kweAluminiyam yoShishino & Ukuthintela Ubomi Obude
Intshayelelo: Umhlwa kwiAluminiyam yoShishino? Musa ukuvumela i-Corrosion isiqhwale kwiMveliso yokuSebenza!
Kwimimandla efana nokwenza oomatshini, i-aerospace, Izixhobo zekhemikhali, kunye nomzila kaloliwe, I-aluminium alloys ibe yizinto eziphambili ngenxa yobunzima bayo kunye neempawu eziphezulu zamandla. Nangona kunjalo, ubushushu obufumileyo, ityuwa yokutshiza, kunye nemidiya ye-acid-alkaline kwiindawo zoshishino zinokuyonakalisa ngokulula ifilimu ye-oxide yendalo (5-10nm) kumphezulu we-aluminiyam, ukwenza umhlwa wealuminiyam ekhululekileyo ikakhulu eyenziwe yi-Al₂O₃・nH₂O kunye ne-AlOOH.
Iingozi zomhlwa we-aluminiyam zibi kakhulu kunokuba unokucinga: Ayinciphisi kuphela amandla okuqina amacandelo ngo 15%-30% kodwa kunokubangela ukusilela okunje ngokuvaleka kwenkqubo yehydraulic kunye nokungasebenzi kakuhle kokutshabalalisa ubushushu, okukhokelela ekuphelelweni kwexesha lokugcinwa kwezixhobo zokusebenza kunye nokwanda kweendleko zenkampani.
Eli nqaku lichaza iinkcukacha ze 4 ishishini elingundoqo aluminiyam itekhnoloji yokususa umhlwa kwaye 5 izisombululo zokuthintela umhlwa ukukunceda ukujongana ngokuchanekileyo nemiba ye-aluminiyam ye-rust kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo kunye nokwandisa ubomi benkonzo yezinto ze-aluminiyam ngaphezu 50%.
Umhlwa weAluminiyam yeAluminiyam – Qonda iiNgozi kuqala, Emva koko Khetha Isisombululo Esilungileyo
3 Oonobangela abaphambili be-Industrial Aluminium Rust (Ziphephe Ezi “Imigibe yomhlwa”)
Umhlwa we-aluminium kwiimeko zemizi-mveliso ayibangelwa yinto enye kodwa kukudityaniswa kweemeko ezininzi zokusingqongileyo.. Ukuphepha kwangethuba kunokunciphisa umngcipheko wokonakala ngo 80%:
- Electrochemical Corrosion: Ii-electrolytes ezifana ne-Cl⁻ kunye ne-SO₄²⁻ kwiindibano zocweyo zemichiza zikhawulezisa ukusabela kwegalvanic phakathi kwe-aluminiyam substrate kunye nefilimu ye-oxide.. Imveliso yeAl(OH)₃ ikhuphe irust yealuminiyam, eyona nto ibangela umhlwa kwizinto ze-aluminium kwizixhobo zemichiza.
- Uxinzelelo lwe-Corrosion Cracking (SCC): Kumalungu aphantsi koxinzelelo lwe-tensile (I-E.G., iincakuba zeenjini zenqwelomoya, Iinqanawa zoxinzelelo), ifilimu ye-oxide iphula kunye neendawo zokuxininisa uxinzelelo, kunye ne-aluminium substrate iyaqhubeka nokugqwala, ukwenza irusi ye-aluminiyam ye-transgranular.
- I-Oxidation yobushushu obuphezulu: Kwiziko lemizi-mveliso kunye namalungu einjini yomoya asebenza ngaphezulu kwe-200℃, ifilimu oxide yemveli iba multi-layered. Umaleko wangaphandle uyaxobuka ngenxa yokwahluka kokwandiswa kwe-thermal, kwaye umaleko wangaphakathi wenza umaleko we-oxide onombhobho, ethi ekugqibeleni ikhule ibe ngumhlwa wealuminiyam.
UHlelo lweNgozi lwe-Aluminiyam ye-Industrial Rust-Leliphi iNqanaba apho isixhobo sakho siwela kulo?
Amanqanaba awohlukeneyo omhlwa aneempembelelo ezahlukeneyo kakhulu kwisixhobo. Ukumisela ngokuchanekileyo inqanaba ngundoqo ekukhetheni isisombululo esifanelekileyo sonyango:
| Umhlwa ubungqongqo | Ireyithi yokugubungela umhlwa | Impembelelo kwiiPropati zoomatshini | Imingcipheko yeZixhobo (Kufuneka Uphaphe!) | Ixesha eliCetyisiweyo loNyango |
| Ubulali | ≤10% | Ukunciphisa amandla ≤5% | Akukho kusilela ngqo, kodwa ukubeka iliso kuyafuneka | Ngaphakathi 1 inyanga |
| Ngokulinganiselweyo | 10%-30% | Ukunciphisa amandla 5%-15% | Ukusilela kwetywina, ukutenxa ngokuchanekileyo, echaphazela imveliso | Ngaphakathi 7 iintsuku |
| Eqatha | ≥30% | Ukunciphisa amandla ≥15% | Ukuqhekeka kwesakhiwo, ukukhubazeka kwenkqubo, iingozi zokhuseleko ezinokubakho | Ngoko nangoko |
B.4 Ubuchwephesha bokuSusa umhlwa kwi-Aluminiyam engundoqo-Khetha kwiMbango yokuSuswa komhlwa
UkuSila koomatshini – “Isisombululo esiKhawulezayo” Umhlwa ukuya kuPhakathi (Ixabiso eliphantsi, Easy Operation)
Imeko esebenzayo: Umhlwa we-aluminiyam ophakathi ukuya kwephakathi (Ukhuseleko ≤20%) kwiindawo zoomatshini, umbhobho wangaphandle, njl., ilungele ngokukodwa ukugcinwa kwendawo.
Amanqaku obugcisa (Kulula kubaQalayo ukuya kwi-Master):
- Ukukhethwa kwesixhobo: Khetha i-angle grinder ye-750-1500W, ihambelana ne 80-120 umnatha aluminiyam oxide amavili okugaya (ukuze kugutywe rhabaxa ukususa umhlwa) kwaye 320-400 amavili mesh (yokugaya nokulungisa).
- Iiparamitha eziphambili: Isantya sokujikeleza 1800-3000r / min, i-angle yokusila i-15-30 ° (ukuphepha ukukrwela i-substrate), izinga lokutya 50-100mm / s.
- Amanyathelo okusebenza:
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- I-Preyment: Sebenzisa umoya oxinanisiweyo (0.6-0.8MPa) ukuqhumisa uthuli. Ukuba ungcoliseko lweoyile lungaphezulu kwe-5mg/cm², cwilisa a 5% Na₂CO₃ isisombululo (60℃) kuba 10 imizuzu yokucima.
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- UkuSila ngokuHlela: Ekuqaleni, yenza ukusila ngokurhabaxa ukususa umhlwa ongqindilili, ke ukugaya kakuhle de uburhabaxa bomphezulu bufike kuRa ≤1.6μm.
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- Emva koNyango: Sebenzisa ivacuum ukususa umgubo we-aluminium (ukugxininiswa kothuli ≤10mg/m³), kwaye usule umgubo oseleyo nge-isopropyl alcohol.
Iindleko zokubhekisela: Ngokumalunga \(0.75-\)1.5 nge square metre nganye. Akukho zixhobo zobuchule ezifunekayo, ukuyenza ilungele ukusetyenzwa kwebhetshi encinci ukuya kwephakathi.
Ukususwa kokuqhunyiswa kwesanti- “Umbulali” ngenxa yomhlwa oMbi (Ifanelekile kuLungiselelo lwe-Pre-Coating)
Imeko esebenzayo: Umhlwa onzima wealuminiyam (Ukhuseleko ≥30%) kwiitanki zokugcina, amacandelo amakhulu olwakhiwo, njl., okanye unyango lwangaphambili ngaphambi kokutyabeka.
Amanqaku obugcisa (Ukusebenza okuphezulu kunye ne-Automation):
- UkuKhethwa kweAbrasive: Sebenzisa i-0.5-1.0mm yesanti yequartz (ixabiso eliphantsi) ukususwa komhlwa ongqindilili, kunye nesanti ye-aluminium oxide eyi-0.1-0.3mm (ukuphepha umonakalo) kumacandelo achanekileyo.
- Iiparamitha ezingundoqo: Uxinzelelo lomoya ocinezelweyo 0.5-0.8MPa, umgama wesanti 150-250mm, i-engile yokutshiza ngama-45°, isantya esihambayo 200-300mm / min.
- Umgangatho woMgangatho: Ukufikelela kwinqanaba le-Sa2.5 (akukho umhlwa obonakalayo we-aluminiyam okanye isikali se-oxide, izingcolisi ezishiyekileyo ≤5%), ubuso uburhabaxa Ra 2.0-5.0μm (ukuphucula ukunamathela kokutyabeka).
- IsiKhokelo sokuNqanda imigibe: Ukutywina imingxuma enemisonto kunye nokutywinwa kwendawo ngeeplagi zerabha ye-silicone. Unyango lothintelo lomhlwa kufuneka lugqitywe ngaphakathi 4 iiyure emva kokuqhunyiswa kwesanti (ukuthintela i-oxidation kwakhona).
Iindleko zokubhekisela: Ngokumalunga \(2.25-\)3.75 nge square metre nganye, ilungele ibhetshi enkulu, ukususwa komhlwa kwindawo enkulu.
Ukususwa kweMichiza – “Ukhetho olusebenzayo” yeBatch Processing (2 Iintlobo: I-Acidic / Chelating)
Imeko esebenzayo: Ukulungiswa kwebhetshi yamacandelo amancinci (I-E.G., i-electronic heat sinks, iziqhoboshi) okanye umhlwa aluminiyam kwizikhewu ezinzima.
a.1 Ukususwa kwe-Acidic Rust (Ukusebenza okuphezulu, Ixabiso eliphantsi, Ifanelekile kuMalunga aQhelekileyo)
- Ifomula engundoqo (Ubungakanani bomthamo): 10% I-HCl + 0.5% i-thiourea (inhibitor ukukhusela i-substrate) + 0.2% sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (ukwandisa isiphumo sokususa umhlwa).
- QAPHELA I-parameter: Iqondo lobushushu 25-35℃, ixesha lokuntywiliselwa 20-40 imizuzu, izinga lokutya ≤0.5g/(m² h).
- Amanqaku okulawula: Kuba ialloys aluminiyam equlathe >2% Cu, ukwandisa inhibitor yoxinaniso ukuya 0.8%. Vavanya ugxininiso lwe-Al³⁺ rhoqo 10 imizuzu; gcwalisa ngesisombululo esitsha ukuba singaphezulu kwe-15g/L.
b.2 Ukususwa komhlwa (Ukonakala okuphantsi, Ifanelekile kuLuhlu oluchanekileyo)
- Inkqubo yeFomula: 8%-10% I-EDTA disodium + 3% i-disodium hydrogen phosphate + 0.5% triethanolamine (ph 9.0-10.0).
- Izibonelelo: Isixa sokutya komphezulu ≤0.1g/m², ukutenxa ukutenxa emva kokususwa komhlwa ≤0.02mm, ifanelekile kwisixhobo sokumisa i-aerospace kunye ne-sensor ezichanekileyo.
- Iingcebiso zokuSebenza: Lawula ubushushu kwi-40-50 ℃, ixesha lokuntywiliselwa 30-60 imizuzu, kwaye uhlambulule ngamanzi adibeneyo (conductivity ≤50μS / cm) emva koko.
Ubuchwephesha obukwinqanaba eliphezulu- “Izisombululo eziphezulu” Yezixhobo ezichanekileyo (ILaser/Plasma)
Imeko esebenzayo: Amacandelo achanekileyo aneemfuno zokuchaneka okuphezulu kwi-aerospace kunye ne-semiconductors (I-E.G., iintsimbi ze-injini, itshiphu ubushushu ishona).
a.1 iTekhnoloji yokuCoca iLaser
- UKhetho lweZixhobo: Utyhale uNd:YAG laser (ubude be-1064nm), amandla 100-300W.
- Iiparamitha eziphambili: I-Pulse frequency 20-50kHz, isantya sokuskena 300-500mm/s, indawo ubukhulu 0.2-0.5mm.
- Izibonelelo: Uburhabaxa bomphezulu emva kokususwa komhlwa iRa ≤0.8μm, indawo echaphazeleke bubushushu ≤50μm, akukho monakalo womatshini.
b.2 ITekhnoloji yokuCoca iPlasma
- Amanqaku eNkqubo: Argon plasma (ubunyulu 99.999%), isidanga sevacuum 10⁻³-10⁻⁴Pa, amandla 150-300W, ixesha lonyango 10-20 imizuzu.
- Iziphumo: I-engile yoqhagamshelwano lomphezulu ≤30 ° (iphucula ukunamathela kokutyabeka), intsalela yekhabhoni ≤0.1%, ifanelekile kwi-semiconductor substrates ze-aluminium.
C. 5 Izisombululo zoThintelo lwe-Aluminiyam ye-Industrial Rust-Yeka umhlwa kuMthombo
I-Anodic Oxidation - “Ukhetho lokuqala” kuKhuseleko ngokuBanzi (Ukunyangwa okuqinileyo kwesitshizi seTyuwa)
Imeko esebenzayo: Amacandelo ngokubanzi njengemibhobho yezoshishino kunye neendawo zesakhiwo, ilungele ngakumbi iindawo ezifumileyo.
Inkqubo yokusebenza esemgangathweni:
- I-Preyment: Ukunciphisa amafutha (5% Nah, 50℃, 10 imizuzu) → Ukuchola (10% HNO₃, ubushushu begumbi, 5 imizuzu) → Ukuhlanjululwa ngamanzi adibeneyo (conductivity ≤10μS/cm).
- Iiparamitha ze-Oxidation: 18%-20% H₂so₄, iqondo lobushushu 20-22℃, Uxinaniso lwangoku 1.2-1.5A/dm², ixesha 30-40 imizuzu (ubukhulu befilimu 15-20μm).
- Unyango lokutywina: Gxila kwi-a 5% isisombululo se-nickel acetate (85℃, 20 imizuzu), amanzi abilayo ukunciphisa ubunzima ≤30mg/dm² (ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza kokutywinwa).
- Isalathiso sokuSebenza: Ukumelana nokungathathi hlangothi kwetyuwa yokutshiza ≥1000 iiyure (Gb / t 10125), ilungele ukukhuselwa ngokubanzi kwangaphakathi nangaphandle.
Ukugquma komgubo - “Ezizodwa” kuMmandla waNgaphandle/oMbi (Ukumelana neMozulu okugqwesileyo)
Imeko esebenzayo: Iindawo ezivaliweyo zezixhobo zangaphandle, kaloliwe transit imathiriyeli aluminiyam, kunye namacandelo eworkshop yeekhemikhali.
Amanqaku eNkqubo:
- Ukukhetha umgubo: Polyester-epoxy powder (Tg ≥50℃, amandla empembelelo ≥50kg・cm, anti-impembelelo kunye ne-anti-peeling).
- Ukutshiza iParameters: Umbane we-Electrostatic 60-80kV, izinga lokuhamba komgubo 50-80g / min, uxinzelelo lwe-atomization 0.3-0.5MPa.
- Iimeko Zokunyanga: Bhaka kwi-180-200 ℃ ukuze 20-25 imizuzu (isidanga sokudibanisa ≥90%).
- Iingenelo ezingundoqo: Ukugquma ubukhulu 60-80μm, ukuncamathela (uvavanyo cross-cut) ≤Ibanga 1, ukumelana nesitshizi setyuwa ≥2000 iiyure, ukuguga okuchasene ne-ultraviolet.
I-Chromium-Free Passivation- “Ukhetho Olutsha” ukwenzela Unyango lwangaphambili lwe-Eco-Friendly (Ithatha indawo yeChromate yesiNtu)
Imeko esebenzayo: Izinto zeAluminiyam zoomatshini bokutya kunye nezixhobo zonyango (kunye neemfuno eziphezulu zokusingqongileyo), okanye unyango lwangaphambili ngaphambi kokutyabeka.
Inkqubo engundoqo:
- Ifomula yeSisombululo sePassivation: 5%-8% i-hydrofluozirconic acid + 2% zirconium nitrate, ph 3.0-4.0, ubushushu 25-30℃.
- Amanyathelo okusebenza: Gxila ngenxa 5-8 imizuzu yokwenza ifilimu ye-50-100nm passivation.
- Intsebenzo: Ukumelana nokungathathi hlangothi kwetyuwa yokutshiza ≥240 iiyure, ukuncamathela ukutyabeka kuphuculwe ngu 30%, iyahambelana nemigangatho yokusingqongileyo ye-RoHS.
Inkqubo yoLondolozo lwarhoqo- “Isitshixo” Ukwandiswa koBomi boKhuselo (Yahlulwe ngoHlobo lweCandelo)
Imijikelo yesondlo iyahluka kakhulu phakathi kwamacandelo ahlukeneyo amashishini. Ulondolozo olungaboniyo lunyusa iindleko; isicwangciso esichanekileyo siqinisekisa ukusebenza kakuhle:
| Uhlobo lwecandelo | Umjikelo woHlolo | Umxholo woLondolozo | Indlela yokuqaphela (Ilula kwaye kulula ukuyisebenzisa) |
| IAluminiyam yezixhobo zeMichiza | 1 inyanga | Umhlwa phezu komhlaba, ingqibelelo yokwaleka | Ukuhlolwa okubonakalayo + igeyiji yobukhulu bokugquma (ukulinganisa ubukhulu) |
| Amacandelo e-Aerospace | 500 iiyure zendiza | Ukuqhekeka koxinzelelo lwe-corrosion, ubunzulu bomgodi | Eddy uvavanyo lwangoku + uvavanyo lokungena (ukujonga iintanda) |
| Umzila kaloliwe weAluminiyam | 3 iinyanga | Ityiwa yokutshiza, weld ingqibelelo | Uvavanyo lwe-ultrasonic + iphepha lovavanyo lokutshiza ngetyuwa (ukulinganisa umhlwa) |
| IAluminiyam yoomatshini ngokubanzi | 2 iinyanga | Umonakalo wefilimu ye-oksidi, i-gap corrosion | Ukuhlolwa okubonakalayo + ukusula utywala (ukujonga ukunamathela) |
Ulawulo lokusingqongileyo – Nciphisa “Izichukumisi zomthombo” yeRust (Ixabiso eliphantsi, Ukubuya okuphezulu)
- Ulawulo lokufuma: Gcina ukufuma okuhambelanayo ≤65% kwiindibano zocweyo zamashishini. Xhobisa izinto zokukhupha amanzi kwiindawo ezishushu nezifumileyo (indawo yombethe ≤15℃) ukuphepha ukufuma ukufuma.
- Ulawulo oluPhakathi oluNdle ukonakala: Lawula i-Cl⁻ concentration ≤50mg/m³, kunye nokusebenzisa i-carbon adsorption esebenzayo + iinkqubo zokufunxa ukutshiza (kubalulekile kwiindibano zocweyo zamachiza).
- Ukukhuselwa kweGalvanic Corrosion: Fakela i-polyimide insulation gaskets kwiindawo zokudityaniswa kwe-aluminium-steel. Lungisa iingubo ezonakalisiweyo ngepeyinti ehambelanayo ngaphakathi 24 iiyure (ukuthintela ukwanda).
I-D.FAQ Malunga noNyango lwe-Aluminiyam ye-Industrial Rust-Iimpendulo kokuPhezulu kwakho 10 Iinkxalabo
- Q: Kukangaphi uthintelo lomhlwa lufuna ukuphinda lufakwe emva konyango lwe-aluminiyam ye-industrial??
A: Kwiindawo eziqhelekileyo (I-E.G., iindibano zocweyo ngoomatshini), yonke 1-2 iminyaka; kwindawo ezonakalisayo (I-E.G., izityalo zemichiza, iindawo eziselunxwemeni), yonke 6-12 iinyanga; kwiindawo ezivezwe ngaphandle, ukuhlolwa kucetyiswa rhoqo 6 iinyanga.
- Q: Ingaba ukuqhunyiswa kwesanti kungasetyenziselwa umhlwa kwizinto ezichanekileyo zealluminiyam (I-E.G., abenzi boluvo)?
A: Ayikhuthazwa! Ukuqhunyiswa kwesanti konakalisa ukuchaneka. Ukucoca nge-ultrasonic (25-40kHz) okanye ukucoca ngelaser (Ra ≤0.8μm) kuyacetyiswa.
- Q: Ukususwa komhlwa okuneasidi kuya konakalisa i-aluminiyam substrate?
A: Hayi, ukuba i-inhibitor yongezwa! Ii-inhibitors ezifana ne-thiourea kunye ne-urotropine zinokulawula izinga lokubola ngaphakathi kwe-0.5g /(m² h).
- Q: Enesiphumo esingcono sokuthintela umhlwa: I-chromium-free passivation okanye i-anodic oxidation?
A: Iifilimu ze-Anodic oxidation ziyajiya (15-20μm) ngokumelana nesitshizi setyuwa ≥1000 iiyure; Iifilimu ze-chromium-free passivation zincinci (50-100nm), ilungele unyango lwangaphambili kwaye kufuneka isetyenziswe kunye neengubo.
- Q: Indlela yokulahla inkunkuma yomgubo we-aluminium kwishishini? Ngaba inokuphinda isetyenziswe?
A: Ewe, inokuphinda isetyenziswe! Yiqokelele kwaye uyinikezele kumaziko aqeqeshiweyo ukuze inyibilikiswe kwaye isetyenziswe kwakhona (Inqanaba lokubuyisela kwimeko yesiqhelo ≥90%). Iindawo ezingaphinda zisetyenziswe kufuneka zilahlwe ngokuhambelana nemigaqo yenkunkuma eqinileyo kwimizi-mveliso.
- Q: Yiyiphi isisombululo sokuthintela umhlwa esifanelekileyo kwizinto ze-aluminium kwiindawo eziphezulu zokushisa (I-E.G., amaziko oshishino)?
A: Iingubo ezisekelwe kwi-Ceramic (ukumelana nobushushu ≥800℃) okanye i-anodic oxidation yobushushu obuphezulu (ubukhulu befilimu 20-30μm, ukumelana nobushushu 300℃) ziyacetyiswa.
- Q: Yeyiphi iteknoloji eyona nto isebenzayo kwi-batch aluminium rust treatment?
A: Ukususwa komhlwa kwikhemikhali eneasidi kokona kusebenzayo, ekwaziyo ukusetyenzwa amakhulu eenxalenye ezincinci ngeyure, ilungele iziqhoboshi, Ukutshisa isinki, njl.
- Q: Zeziphi izixhobo zokukhusela ezifunwa ngabaqhubi ngexesha lokususwa komhlwa?
A: Ukususwa komhlwa kwikhemikhali: iimpahla ezikhuselayo ezineasidi (ukumelana ne-≥30% HCl) + iiglasi zekhemikhali; ukususwa komhlwa emzimbeni: Iimaski zothuli ze-N95 + iindlebe ezisusa ingxolo.
- Q: I-aluminium alloy welds ijwayele ukugqwala - indlela yokuthintela oku?
A: Emva kwe-welding, susa ifilimu ye-oxide nge 10% i-nitric acid pickling, emva koko wenze i-chromium-free passivation, kwaye ekugqibeleni sebenzisa ipeyinti ye-weld-specific anti-rust (I-E.G., ipeyinti epoxy zinc-rich).
- Q: Ngeendleko eziqingqiweyo, yeyiphi indlela ekufuneka ikhethelwe umhlwa we-aluminiyam ophakathi ukuya kwephakathi?
A: Beka phambili ukugaya ngoomatshini (\(0.75-\)1.5 nge square metre nganye), ilandelwa yi-citric acid yokucoca i-ultrasonic (ilungele umhlwa umsantsa) - ixabiso eliphantsi kwaye kulula ukusebenza.
Ukuqukumbela: “Isikhokelo soKhetho” Kunyango lwe-Aluminiyam ye-Industrial Rust (Ukudityaniswa ngokukhawuleza kweZisombululo)
| Umhlwa ubungqongqo | Uhlobo lwecandelo | ITekhnoloji ecetyiswayo | Izibonelelo | Iindleko (nge square metre nganye) |
| Ubulali | Amacandelo oomatshini ngokubanzi | Ukugaya oomatshini | Ukusebenza lula, akukho zixhobo zobungcali ezifunekayo | \(0.75-\)1.5 |
| Ngokulinganiselweyo | Imibhobho, IiSinki Zobushushu | Ukucoca nge-ultrasonic | Akukho monakalo, ilungele umhlwa umsantsa | \(1.5-\)2.25 |
| Eqatha | Iitanki zokuGcina, Izinto zesakhiwo | Ukususwa kweSandblasting | Ukususwa komhlwa ngokucokisekileyo, ilungele ukugquma kwangaphambili | \(2.25-\)3.75 |
| Amacandelo achanekileyo | Izahlulo ze-Aerospace | ILaser/Plasma Cleaning | Ukuchaneka okuphezulu, akukho monakalo womatshini | \(7.5-\)15 |
| Iqela Amacandelo amancinci | Izibophelelo, Amacandelo ombane | Ukususwa kwe-Acidic Chemical Rust | Ukusebenza okuphezulu, ixabiso eliphantsi | \(1.2-\)1.8 |